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Therefore impotence essential oils buy line kamagra oral jelly, with rare exceptions (such as watching a man who complains of quadriplegia run a marathon) it is not possible for a clinician to state with utter certainty that medically unexplained symptoms are altogether and entirely feigned. Brains elect behavioral strategies by calculating net benefits, but little of that cerebral activity is accessible to or controlled by conscious will. Even the American Psychiatric Association, despite its historical resistance to scientific nosology, has reformed somewhat in regard to this matter. In addition to their discovery of Arabic numerals, the writers reconsidered listing criteria for medically unexplained symptoms that attributed these to internal unhealthy mental processes (separate from brain operations) to which psychiatrists purportedly had privileged professional access. The author accepts that psychological labels such as "depression" or "psychosis" serve as useful stopgaps as we await better brain science. Yet the raft of recent publications regarding psychological "causes" of prolonged symptoms do not seem more profound than common sense, and do not seem more advanced than those of a century past. In 1918 Schaller [747] conducted one of the first systematic surveys of postconcussive complaints. How could Schaller opine that prolonged symptoms always indicate neurosis, and never indicate brain injury The same way Miller did in 1961 [748] and some neuropsychologists do today: he defined persistent injury out of existence. As Miller declared: "Whatever the cause of accident neurosis, it is not the result of physical injury" ([748], p. What if it were established, with all the certainty of gravity, that baseline emotional sensitivity, bad expectations, diagnosis threat, misattribution, and misremembering of the good old days all sometimes affect reporting of post-concussive symptoms In what way have publications promoting the importance of these factors contributed to prevention, diagnosis, or treatment of this patient, or any patient Hence, the main contribution of this pile of literature seems to be conducting research to 35 Compensation, Litigation, and PostConcussive Brain Dysfunction A compensation neurosis is a state of mind, born out of fear, kept alive by avarice, stimulated by lawyers, and cured by a verdict. Kennedy, 1946 [749] the diagnosis of accident neurosis, malingering, or conversion neurosis should be made with a great deal of caution because some patients with seemingly hysterical signs and symptoms may actually have underlying organic disease Evans, 1992 [680], p. This question may seem oblique to the issue of the relationship between compensation systems and post-concussive symptoms. The only reason that compensation is fraught with contention is the lack of a scientifically meaningful measure of outcome. Yet the essential premise of compensation is that we measure loss and try to make up for it. A Priori, Compensation Incites Deviation From the Social Contract As previously mentioned, Bismarck introduced historic reforms in 1884 that quickly crossed the Atlantic, establishing mechanisms to compensate persons injured in occupational Note that distress refers to a subjective loss while disability refers to a loss that has both subjective and objective elements. Outcome will forever be debated because some clinicians are more willing than others to acknowledge that subjective misery is an outcome. If one offers money and leisure to a person so long as he or she remains sick (or claims to be sick), many persons, not just draft dodgers and psychopaths, will be influenced at some level of consciousness to feel sick, to appear sick, or both. As Schaller put it [747]: "Of all the factors which enter into the course and duration of accident neuroses, the question of compensation is one of the most important, and its great psychic influence in a considerable proportion of cases cannot be denied" (p. Given the inevitability that some persons will be influenced by a compensation system to inaccurately report their symptoms, the literature has embraced a moral dichotomy: if one genuinely feels sick (and is not in the midst of a cavalry charge), it is socially acceptable to complain and appear sick. However, if one feels well, then adopting the appearance, behaviors, or identity of a sick person violates the social contract. Let there be no doubt: society must defend itself from free-riders who willfully prey upon the reciprocal altruism of others for personal gain. But again, it is simplistic to draw a phosphorescent line between conscious versus unconscious symptom production. The neuroscience community could be spared the second if it were comfortable with the first. And, since motives are not knowable, what can one realistically expect from a research program The author suspects that the most comprehensive and insightful review of the available data leads to the same place as common sense: (1) some people will report symptoms inaccurately due to the influence of compensation systems; but (2) current science precludes any effort to determine who is doing so and the degree to which their report deviates from what it would otherwise be. For the sake of simplicity (meaning, setting aside deep analysis), there are three explanations for persistent postconcussive complaints. One: as Oppenheimer proposed as early as 1892 [751], many survivors suffer a combination of molecular brain change and traumatic stress. Two: the allure of compensation may influence behavior in the absence of mendacity. A person who feels shocked, broken, and/or victimized, in many cases with good reason, may understandably value an opportunity for recompense. It does not require evil intention for the brain to latch on to strategies for possible relief. The author fully agrees with those who bemoan the disreputable histrionics of scoundrels and rapscallions. The author fully agrees that malingering occurs and is an intolerable violation of the social contract. The author agrees that compensation systems surely incite bias, massage ruminations of revenge, and trigger adoption of the sick role in vulnerable individuals. It exposes prejudice on both sides, and unseemly personal attacks on patients about whose motivations one cannot possibly know. The best one can hope to do is to make the limitations of our knowledge crystal clear and plead for opinions to be leashed to that which can be known. Does the Existence of Compensation Systems Demonstrably Cause Misreport of Symptoms A worker who is brain-damaged on the job will ideally receive medical and financial help precisely titrated to compensate for his or her losses. The brain-injured victim of a reckless driver or a malicious robber is justified in wanting to be restored, in so far as possible, to the life he or she led before. As Schaller cautioned in 1918 [747]: "in the mental make-up of certain persons an accident neurosis may be unfavorably influenced, even perpetuated and aggravated by the pension system" (p. It does not require psychological training or 7-T magnets to predict that a subset of humans will succumb to the allure of the compensated sick role. Common sense and a priori theses aside, the stakes are high and one wants evidence regarding whether, and to what extent, compensation systems cause inaccurate symptom report. Keep in mind that compensation seeking is often a routine, automatic element of employment, about which the employee makes no decision. In addition, most compensation systems involve a one-time decision by a board or a court, after which the die is cast. Our interest is not in the symptoms of those who have gained compensation; they have 36 Let us not blame Bismarck for the resulting 1. Our question is whether the carrot of compensation incentivizes excessive symptom reporting. Can one say, "That patient deliberately elected to file a civil tort, utterly free from the influence of her brain damage on her decision-making capacity, utterly independent of the aggressive blandishments of an ambulance-chasing attorney, and completely independent of pressure from an angry niece and a greedy nephew" It is only to remark that brain injury may influence thinking, and that more than one brain may have influenced the decision. First, one must determine the time of the decision to engage in litigation with respect to the injury and symptoms. Is it scientifically acceptable to lump together subjects seeking compensation with subjects receiving compensation An investigation of the influence of financial seeking must not be contaminated by inclusion of non-seekers. Second, might it matter what motivates the subjects in this investigation consider to be their own That is, ignoring the human unconscious (an obvious research weakness), should the investigator stratify the study by self-reported motives One subset of compensation seekers has been injured by persons cited for drunken and reckless driving, or by criminal assailants, or by others to whom any reasonable person would attribute blameworthiness. Another subset of compensation seekers might face daunting medical bills without inadequate insurance, hence, unarguably needing a large amount of money they do not have. That is another issue condemning the researcher who elects to remain ignorant of subject heterogeneity. The ideal (albeit unrealistic) study: find two large groups of genetically identical patients with identical life histories (same neighborhood, school, job, spouse, and mother) all of whom have neurobiologically identical injuries.

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Injuries of the spine and spinal cord without apparent mechanical lesion erectile dysfunction drugs list generic 100mg kamagra oral jelly with amex, and nervous shock, in their surgical and medicolegal aspects. Persistent post-traumatic headache, postconcussion syndrome, and whiplash injuries: the evidence for a nontraumatic basis with an historical review. Compulsory insurance in Germany: Including an appendix relating to compulsory insurance in other countries in Europe. On the value of anatomy and pathology of nervous system for physiological psychology. The microscopic examination of the brains of two men dead of commotio cerebri (shell shock) without visible external injury. Annual of the universal medical sciences and analytical index: A yearly report of the progress of general sanitary sciences throughout the world. Gunshot wounds of the scalp, with special reference to the neurological signs presented. Experimental medullary concussion of the spinal cord in rabbits: Histologic study of the early stages. Cerebral involvement in head injury: A study based on the examination of two hundred cases. Shell wound of head, 1915; persistent headache four years; operation; free opening of skull and dura in region of injury; contusion of brain found; relief of headache. The diagnosis and therapy of so-called posttraumatic neurosis following craniocerebral injuries. Histological changes in the brain in cases of fatal injury to the head, part iii: Reactions of microglia and oligodendroglia. Histological changes in the brain in cases of fatal injury to the head, part vi: Cytoarchitectonic alterations. Histologic changes in the brain in cases of fatal injury to the head; alterations in nerve cells. Brain deformation under mild impact: Magnetic resonance imaging-based assessment and finite element study. Biochemical and neurochemical sequelae following mild traumatic brain 88 89 1: What Is a Concussive Brain Injury Partial interruption of axonal transport due to microtubule breakage accounts for the formation of periodic varicosities after traumatic axonal injury. Concussive brain trauma in the mouse results in acute cognitive deficits and sustained impairment of axonal function. Voxel- and atlasbased analysis of diffusion tensor imaging may reveal focal axonal injuries in mild traumatic brain injury: Comparison with diffuse axonal injury. Diffuse axonal injury in mild traumatic brain injury: A diffusion tensor imaging study. Extent of microstructural white matter injury in postconcussive syndrome correlates with impaired cognitive reaction time: A 3T diffusion tensor imaging study of mild traumatic brain injury. White matter abnormalities in mild traumatic brain injury: A diffusion tensor imaging study. Biomarkers of increased diffusion anisotropy in semi-acute mild traumatic brain injury: A longitudinal perspective. Robust detection of traumatic axonal injury in individual mild traumatic brain injury patients: Intersubject variation, change over time and bidirectional changes in anisotropy. Effect of head impacts on diffusivity measures in a cohort of collegiate contact sport athletes. Structural dissociation of attentional control and memory in adults with and without mild traumatic brain injury. Diffusion tensor imaging abnormalities in patients with mild traumatic brain injury and neurocognitive impairment. Concussion in athletics: Ongoing clinical and brain imaging research controversies. Dynamic changes in N-methyl-d -aspartate receptors after closed head injury in mice: Implications for treatment of neurological and cognitive deficits. Notes on the surgery of the war in Crimea with remarks on the treatment of gunshot wounds. Acute injuries of the head: Their diagnosis, treatment, complications, and sequels. Cytokines and innate inflammation in the pathogenesis of human traumatic brain injury. Interleukin 6 mediates neuroinflammation and motor coordination deficits after mild traumatic brain injury and brief hypoxia in mice. Injury timing alters metabolic, inflammatory and functional outcomes following repeated mild traumatic brain injury. Tumor necrosis factor alpha and Fas receptor contribute to cognitive deficits independent of cell death after concussive traumatic brain injury in mice. New perspectives on central and peripheral immune responses to acute traumatic brain injury. Long-term upregulation of inflammation and suppression of cell proliferation in the brain of adult rats exposed to traumatic brain injury using the controlled cortical impact model. Neuroinflammatory responses to traumatic brain injury: Etiology, clinical consequences, and therapeutic opportunities. Inflammatory biomarkers, cerebral microbleeds, and small vessel disease: Framingham Heart Study. A genetic polymorphism for translocator protein 18 kDa affects both in vitro and in vivo radioligand binding in human brain to this putative biomarker of neuroinflammation. Neuroinflammation after traumatic brain injury: Opportunities for therapeutic intervention. Brain response to traumatic brain injury in wild-type and interleukin-6 knockout mice: A microarray analysis. Gene expression following traumatic brain injury in humans: Analysis by microarray. The challenge of mild traumatic brain injury: Role of biochemical markers in diagnosis of brain damage. Increased risk of multiple sclerosis after traumatic brain injury: A nationwide population-based study. Hippocampus, amygdala and global brain changes 10 years after childhood traumatic brain injury. Reaffirmed limitations of meta-analytic methods in the study of mild traumatic brain injury: A response to Rohling et al. Extracellular N-acetyl-aspartate as a biochemical marker of the severity of neuronal damage following experimental acute traumatic brain injury. Evidence for cellular damage in normal-appearing white matter correlates with injury severity in patients following traumatic brain injury: A magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. Longitudinal and prognostic evaluation of mild traumatic brain injury: A 1H-magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. Assessment of metabolic brain damage and recovery following mild traumatic brain injury: A multicentre, proton magnetic resonance spectroscopic study in concussed patients. Monitoring long-term effects of mild traumatic brain injury with magnetic resonance spectroscopy: A pilot study. Is there evidence for neurodegenerative change following traumatic brain injury in children and youth Decreased prefrontal cortex activity in mild traumatic brain injury during performance of an auditory oddball task.

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Development of a research agenda for inferior vena cava filters: proceedings from a multidisciplinary research consensus panel erectile dysfunction jacksonville florida cheap kamagra oral jelly 100mg overnight delivery. A pilot study on the randomization of inferior vena cava filter placement for venous thromboembolism prophylaxis in high-risk trauma patients. The effectiveness of prophylactic inferior vena cava filters in trauma patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Free-floating thrombus and embolic risk in patients with angiographically confirmed proximal deep venous thrombosis. Ambulatory therapy of patients with free-floating proximal deep vein thrombosis is safe. Effect of a retrievable inferior vena cava filter plus anticoagulation vs anticoagulation alone on risk of recurrent pulmonary embolism: a randomized clinical trial. Fatal pulmonary embolism in venous thrombosis of the leg and pelvis during lysis therapy. Treatment of patients with venous thromboembolism and malignant disease: should vena cava filter placement be routine Prolonged versus standard-duration venous thromboprophylaxis in major orthopedic surgery: a systematic review. Oral direct factor Xa inhibitors versus low-molecular-weight heparin to prevent venous thromboembolism in patients undergoing total hip or knee replacement: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Impact of postoperative venous thromboembolism on Medicare recipients undergoing total hip replacement or total knee replacement surgery. Incidence and management of pulmonary embolism following spinal surgery occurring while under chemical thromboprophylaxis. The inferior vena cava filter is effective in preventing fatal pulmonary embolus after hip and knee arthroplasties. The role of potentially retrievable inferior vena cava filters in high-risk patients undergoing joint arthroplasty. Comprehensive assessment of prophylactic preoperative inferior vena cava filters for major spinal reconstruction in adults. Prophylactic implantation of inferior vena cava filter during endovascular therapies for deep venous thrombosis of the lower extremity: is it necessary Catheter-directed thrombolysis for lower extremity deep venous thrombosis: report of a national multicenter registry. Long-term outcomes of catheter directed thrombolysis for lower extremity deep venous thrombosis without prophylactic inferior vena cava filter placement. A prospective registry of 5,451 patients with ultrasound-confirmed deep vein thrombosis. Recurrent venous thromboembolism and bleeding complications during anticoagulant treatment in patients with cancer and venous thrombosis. Thromboembolism is a leading cause of death in cancer patients receiving outpatient chemotherapy. Venous thromboembolism prophylaxis and treatment in patients with cancer: American Society of Clinical Oncology clinical practice guideline update. International clinical practice guidelines for the treatment and prophylaxis of venous thromboembolism in patients with cancer. Predictors of interventional treatment use for venous thromboembolism in cancer patients. Treatment of deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary emboli in patients with primary and metastatic brain tumors. Thromboembolic complications in patients with advanced cancer: anticoagulation versus Greenfield filter placement. Complications of therapy for venous thromboembolic disease in patients with brain tumors. Efficacy of prophylactic placement of inferior vena cava filter in patients undergoing spinal surgery. The incidence of clinical postoperative thrombosis after gastric surgery for obesity during 16 years. Fatal pulmonary embolism after bariatric operations for morbid obesity: a 24-year retrospective analysis. Current practices in the prophylaxis of venous thromboembolism in bariatric surgery. Status of venous thromboembolism prophylaxis among bariatric surgeons: have we changed our practice during the past decade Prospective analysis of the incidence of deep venous thrombosis in bariatric surgery patients. Venous thromboembolism after laparoscopic bariatric surgery for morbid obesity: clinical burden and prevention. Prophylaxis of venous thromboembolism using two different doses of low-molecular-weight heparin (nadroparin) in bariatric surgery: a prospective randomized trial. Inferior vena caval filter insertion prior to bariatric surgery: a systematic review of the literature. Inferior vena cava filters and postoperative outcomes in patients undergoing bariatric surgery: a meta-analysis. Inferior vena cava filters for prevention of venous thromboembolism in obese patients undergoing bariatric surgery: a systematic review. Activated protein C sensitivity, protein C, protein S and coagulation in normal pregnancy. Increased levels of procoagulants and reduced levels of inhibitors during pregnancy induce a hypercoagulable state, combined with a reactive fibrinolysis. Endovascular caval interruption in pregnant patients with deep vein thrombosis of the lower extremity. Recurrent pulmonary embolism in pregnancy managed with the Greenfield vena caval filter. Experience with the Cardial inferior vena cava filter as prophylaxis against pulmonary embolism in pregnant women with extensive deep venous thrombosis. The use of inferior vena cava filters in pediatric patients for pulmonary embolus prophylaxis. Long-term follow-up of Greenfield inferior vena cava filter placement in children. Low-dose urokinase infusions to treat fibrinous obstruction of venous access devices in cancer patients. Recombinant tissue plasminogen activator infusion for hemodialysis catheter clearance. Upper limb deep vein thrombosis: a literature review to streamline the protocol for management. Deep vein thrombosis of the axillary-subclavian veins: epidemiologic data, effects of different types of treatment and late sequelae. Venous thromboembolism associated with long-term use of central venous catheters in cancer patients. Incidence, risk factors, and outcomes of catheter-related thrombosis in adult patients with cancer. Central vein catheter-related thrombosis in intensive care patients: incidence, risks factors, and relationship with catheter-related sepsis. Retrievable vena cava filters in trauma patients for high-risk prophylaxis and prevention of pulmonary embolism. Early experience with retrievable inferior vena cava filters in high-risk trauma patients. The role of temporary inferior vena cava filters in critically ill surgical patients. Management of occlusion and thrombosis associated with long-term indwelling central venous catheters. Infectious complications of central venous catheters increase the risk of catheter-related thrombosis in hematology patients: a prospective study. Central venous thrombosis: an early and frequent complication in cancer patients bearing long-term silastic catheter. Incidence of thrombotic complications in patients with haematological malignancies with central venous catheters: a prospective multicentre study. Are clinical signs accurate indicators of the cause of central venous catheter occlusion Central venous line-related thrombosis in children: association with central venous line location and insertion technique.

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Treatment of a woman with lupus and thromboembolism and cutaneous intolerance of heparins using fondaparinux during pregnancy erectile dysfunction causes premature ejaculation discount 100mg kamagra oral jelly with visa. Fondaparinux is a safe alternative in case of heparin intolerance during pregnancy. Fondaparinux is an effective alternative anticoagulant in pregnant women with high risk for thromboembolism and intolerance to low molecular weight heparin and heparinoids. A retrospective analysis of fondaparinux versus enoxaparin treatment in women with infertility or pregnancy loss. Use of fondaparinux in a pregnant woman with pulmonary embolism and heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Anticoagulation of pregnant women with mechanical heart valve prosthesis: a systematic review of the literature (2000-2009). Pregnancy and mechanical valves prostheses: a high risk situation for the mother and the fetus. Coumarins during pregnancy: long term effects on growth and development in school age children. Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia-alternative anticoagulation in pregnancy and lactation. Treatment of heparin induced thrombocytopenia and thrombosis during first trimester of pregnancy (letter). Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia occurring in the first trimester of pregnancy: successful treatment with lepirudin (letter). Emergency pulmonary embolectomy during the second trimester of pregnancy: report of a case. Successful use of argatroban during the third trimester of pregnancy: case report and review of the literature. Anticoagulation with argatroban in a parturient with heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Pradaxa (dabigatran etexilate mesylate) Prescribing Information (revised 11/2015). Transfer of dabigatran and dabigatran etexilate mesylate across the dually perfused human placenta. Rivaroxaban transfer across the dually perfused isolated human placental cotyledon. Prophylaxis for venous thromboembolic disease in pregnancy and the early postnatal period. Coumadin skin necrosis in a patient with a free protein S deficiency: case report and literature review. Thrombophilia and venous thromboembolism in pregnancy: a meta-analysis of genetic risk. Venous thrombotic risk in family members of unselected individuals with factor V Leiden. Hereditary risk factors for thrombophilia and probability of venous thromboembolism during pregnancy and the puerperium. Frequency of pregnancy-related venous thromboembolism in anticoagulant factor-deficient women: implications for prophylaxis. High risk of pregnancy-related venous thromboembolism in women with multiple thrombophilic defects. A prospective cohort study on the absolute risks of venous thromboembolism and predictive value of screening asymptomatic relatives of patients with hereditary deficiencies of protein S, protein C, or antithrombin. 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Given these inconsistencies acupuncture protocol erectile dysfunction kamagra oral jelly 100mg for sale, it remains mysterious why cycling women seem to have worse post-concussive outcomes. No simple and consistent "progesterone is neuroprotective" conclusion is possible. It is conceivable that the focus on sex steroids and neurons has distracted us from other female- or cycle-related biology that might answer this question. The story, however, is not "women generate larger cortisol bumps than men in response to stress and are therefore more likely to get sad or anxious. Both baseline and stress-related glucocorticoid production also seem to be phase-dependent. Thus, young women in the luteal phase match men in cortisol reactions to stress [596, 601]. These findings join a host of others strongly supporting the conclusion that phase of menstrual cycle does, in fact, somewhat impact the mind [600, 603, 608]. The point is not that women are mental slaves to a carnival ride of neurobiological fluctuation but that subtle variation in some domains may marginally alter thresholds of vulnerability to disease. In a report that seemingly weaves these observations together in a coherent and plausible way, Bryant et al. After controlling for age, type of injury, and severity of injury, women who had been in the luteal phase at the time of the injury were almost five times as likely to suffer flashbacks. The authors concluded: "Increased glucocorticoid release associated with the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle may facilitate consolidation of trauma memories" (p. Note that the finding of worse outcome after lutealphase trauma matches that of Wunderle et al. Yet another factor of possible interest: data suggest that post-traumatic cerebral edema is more common and more severe in women up to age 50 [611]. Taken together, these findings hint at several pathophysiological mechanisms by which adult women, but not necessarily female mice, could experience worse outcome after concussion. Neurobiological differences may tip the balance of forces in the direction of degeneration, especially during the luteal phase. Women possibly exhibit more post-concussive emotional and cognitive problems due to the interplay of external force with cerebral factors that may not occur (or may not be detectable) in rodents. If this explanation is confirmed by high-quality prospective longitudinal studies, two implications come to mind. One is practical: these observations may enhance the theoretical sophistication of further treatment trials. It is possible that men and women in this age group would benefit from slightly different interventions and, conceivably, that women injured at the luteal phase might benefit from somewhat different treatment from those injured in the follicular phase. The other is a practical, immediately applicable conclusion that is highly unlikely to be heeded: although one does not expect many athletes to use the rhythm method to organize their sporting schedules, neurologists conceivably have a duty to warn girls and women of these observations. Nonetheless, a brief review suggests a more sophisticated final answer than "old people do worse. Children younger than age four32 and adults over age 65 reportedly exhibit more disability and higher rates of mortalities than persons injured in between those extremes of age. It is a truism, not a discovery that reveals an interaction between the biologies of aging and brain injury. This finding may reflect, in part, elderly victims exhibiting larger average lesion volumes [632]. Some of the cited studies included mild cases [622, 628, 629], but none stratified results by severity, making it impossible to determine whether the reported negative relationship between age and outcome applied to that subgroup. For instance, one study reported that elderly mice exhibit a hyper-inflammatory response to traumatic injury [633]. But these pathophysiological details may all contribute to a final common pathway. One possible explanation is a change in the inflammatory response to bleeding [640, 641]. Conceivably (revisiting sex differences in brains) this reflects the fact that sexual dimorphisms in vascular function, inflammation, and other traits are somewhat aging-related [646]. In the light of these findings, the author tentatively proposes a simple overarching explanation for worse outcome among the elderly: aging means a greater vulnerability to the degenerative, vascular, and inflammatory elements of concussion and a lower capacity for plasticity/neurogenesis. Both accelerated degeneration and impaired reactive plasticity mean progressive loss of functional reserve and resilience. Thus, up to a point, one can continue to learn and perform all of the life tasks essential to survival despite losses in neuron, synapses, brain size, and neurogenetic prowess. The present author offers his own guess: up to half of the members of a study cohort under age 60 consists of menstruating women. However, legitimate questions have been raised regarding the methodological soundness of those reports [673]. Although Johnson and Stewart [673] raise sensible questions about the quality of data that rebuts their own speculation, it seems premature to reject all of that data and hang a black-and-white opinion on the shaky hook of some alleged but never proven absolute difference between the biology of mild and other-than-mild. This evidence, from many different disciplines, has gathered volume and strength over the past 20 years. The more precise and accurate the tests become, from whatever specialty, the more likely it seems that organic dysfunction will be found" (Robertson, 1988 [676], p. A separate essay would be necessary to even introduce the conceptual matters at stake and to critically analyze the limited existing data available from the tenebrous closet of problematic research. One thread of discussion claims that "psychological" factors confound the clinical presentation, leading patients to inflate or deflate their complaints. The author offers his personal perspective upfront: he enthusiastically supports all impartial, methodologically sound research to enhance our understanding of risk factors. As a result, the pathophysiology of atypical and seemingly maladaptive thought and mood has yet to be determined. For the sake of concision, a comparison with the rest of clinical science will have to do: one wishes to understand why a symptom is present. A million years ago, a doctor could have accurately explained the causal chain leading to the symptom, limping, by noting that the patient was missing a foot. More recently, a doctor could analyze the cause of a cough by detecting fluid in the lungs, and sometimes even the cause of that cause. But no doctor can satisfactorily specify the biological chain of causality explaining despair or poor reality testing. The 20thcentury literature that lists abstract American Psychiatric Association-vetted constructs such as "major depression" or "generalized anxiety" as risk factors for worse outcome after concussion draws conclusions without having specified any neuroscientifically valid independent variable. Second Barrier Much of the literature on psychological risk factors requires that clinicians read minds. Formerly, this conundrum applied to both conversion disorder and malingering, with the former requiring the doctor to determine the presence of an unconscious motive and the latter requiring determination of a conscious motive. That professional guild failed, however, to overcome the same issues with regard to the diagnosis of malingering. Hence, although we certainly smell smoke when, for example, a patient cannot walk during an office examination but can jog when he thinks he is unobserved, no practical method exists to diagnose the fire of malingering with certainty. First Barrier the current nosology of psychiatry is almost completely bereft of neuroscientific validity.

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Strictly speaking erectile dysfunction nclex order 100 mg kamagra oral jelly overnight delivery, nothing psychological is truly measurable, and a so-called mental test is nothing the Beginnings of Professional Neuropsychology In the same timeframe, psychoanalytic forces were also influencing North American psychology departments. The assumption was that objectivity could be applied to measures like the Rorschach Inkblot Test, Thematic Apperception Test, draw-a-person test, incomplete sentences test, and others. In fact, some of the leaders who became key players in the development of neuropsychology, such as Arthur Benton [29] and Ralph Reitan [30], published their first papers on how to detect what was then referred to as "organicity" using the Rorschach. For example, in 1955 Reitan [31] published "Evaluation of the postconcussion syndrome with the Rorschach test. Simple clinical tests are in consequence seldom sufficient in assessing the psychological sequelae of cerebral lesion, and the demand for more highly controlled methods is easy to understand. Hence, psychologists initially applied their newly devised tests to patients with known neurological abnormalities. Recall that this was prior to neuroimaging with resolution higher than that afforded by skull X-ray, pneumoencephalography, or technetium-99m scintigraphy, and therefore the neurological groups had to be identified based on coarse criteria. None of these conditions are subtle but none produce discrete, uniform focal lesions. A Shadow Passed the basic question has been the validity of the inferences made from these measures of external behavior to central nervous system functioning in the classification of patients with cerebral pathology. Closely connected with this problem is the practical question of the use of these measures, if the results are merely a redundant formulation of that which is medically known. Yet imaging indisputably demonstrates multiple types of gross anatomical and marked functional brain abnormalities. It is important that the new generations of clinicians accept and embrace the implications of such data. Overt behavior, but not thought or subjective feeling, is accessible to observation. Different methods are better for these two very different but complementary purposes, neither of which may ever fully account for the essence of human mentation. So we choose the phenomenon we most wish to characterize and choose the method best suited to that goal. Which is more specific for the assessment of structural brain abnormality: 18 h of neuropsychological testing or five minutes of brain imaging Ironically, the quest to establish a solid scientific footing for neuropsychology derailed it for a generation. He spoke eloquently about the patterns of interacting brain areas that constitute functional systems, and how such systems are engaged to respond to a cognitive challenge. A given locus might belong to many such networks; thus, damage to a brain place is likely to impact multiple functional systems and impair multiple behaviors. He posited one might isolate a locus of brain dysfunction by detecting distinctive patterns of qualitative changes in performance that would logically narrow localization to a node where the relevant functional systems converge. He made little effort to confirm that his putative functional systems existed or represented differentiable elements of cerebral processing. He made no effort to systematize his test administration procedure or to determine whether any given test results reflected any given brain change. His theory-driven, seat-of-the-pants approach could surely inspire hypothesis testing but could not possibly serve as the foundation for a scientific discipline. Unfortunately, the early attempts to contrive a scientific neuropsychology probably did the field more harm than good. Four historical phenomena virtually coincided as neuropsychology came of age in the late 1970s: 1. The establishment of several boards to certify new neuropsychologists served the first need. The realization that no organic/functional dichotomy exists hamstrung most of the early validation efforts. The first decades of neuropsychology were compromised by controversy because two simple errors temporarily derailed this vital enterprise: (1) a clinical diagnosis of neurological disease is evidence of brain damage, and (2) disabling psychiatric disease is evidence of a biologically normal brain. The Well-Intentioned, Doomed Quest for Validation Consider the foundational studies cited as evidence for the validity of neuropsychological tests and batteries. In the 1950s and 1960s, some attention was given to demonstrating that single tests revealed brain damage. A better research approach, it was thought, was to determine whether Trails could correctly differentiate "organic" from "functional" disease. To that end, Goldstein and Neuringer [44] compared the performance of persons with brain damage to those with schizophrenia. Another approach was to employ batteries of tests and serious efforts were made to find a set of tests that could be administered in a practical time frame and would better detect the presence of brain damage than any single test. Halstead [49, 50], for example, published promising results from studies of 27 tests with 237 brain-damaged subjects. Again, "brain damage" did not refer to a particular medical problem and could not be confirmed in many cases beyond the best guesses of neurologists and neurosurgeons. The Vega and Parsons cohort, for instance, included subjects with cerebrovascular disease, trauma, tumor, degenerative disease, neuro-infections, prefrontal lobotomy, and seizures. Golden and his colleagues [56] became among the most-cited authorities on the validation of neuropsychological batteries, although their process of doing so was excoriated by Adams in a review [57]. In a 1978 paper [58], he and his colleagues stated, "The intention of the present study was to use the material presented by Luria. A total of 285 tests were administered, of which 253 were judged to discriminate between the neurological and control groups. Fifty subjects had confirmed neurological diagnosis made on the basis of medical exams alone by a qualified physician, usually a neurologist or neurosurgeon. The control subjects had a variety of medical problems including back injuries, infectious diseases, and chronic cases of pain. Hence, literally none of the subjects with "confirmed neurological diagnosis" had confirmed neurological diagnoses. The control subjects were also selected without regard to normal versus abnormal brain function. Febrile infectious disease and chronic pain are routinely associated with brain dysfunction and cognitive impairment. A battery that fails to detect such patients fails as both a test of brain dysfunction and as a test of cognition. He examined 116 patients referred for neuropsychological testing "to differentiate between a possible organic or psychotic condition. Although no neurological diagnoses were reported, this method was perhaps superior for classifying brain damage than the method in the previously described study. However, the control group consisted of subjects with "schizophrenia or mixed psychosis" diagnosed on the basis of examination by "a physician, usually a psychiatrist" ([73], p.

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Similarly erectile dysfunction caused by high blood pressure medication buy 100mg kamagra oral jelly overnight delivery, ventricular expansion increased dramatically between three weeks and one year. Hence, we know that concussing a rodent head tends to deleteriously, lastingly, and perhaps progressively impact neurobehaviorally sensitive areas. In less-severe concussions, the almost inescapable hippocampal injuries may be more functional than structural, but that hardly lets the brain off the hook. The main problem may be years of ongoing abnormal activity of the remaining circuitry. Therefore, we assert that functional impairment may result from alterations in surviving neurons. More recent technical advances enable direct visualization of these functional changes. The subjects exhibited the expected disruption of hippocampal synaptic efficiency as well as cognitive impairment. The authors claim, however, that dietary treatment with branched-chain amino acids (direct precursors of temporal lobe glutamate synthesis) restored cognition. Readers may be less than satisfied by the declaration, "Trust me; these neurons are fragile. The author does not know the answer, but McCarthy [220] offered several reasons why these memory- and emotioncritical neurons are so vulnerable to concussion: 1. Axons from neurons in the entorhinal cortex project via the perforant pathway to synapse on dentate granular cells. Hippocampal pyramidal cells exhibit slower rebound in energy stores as compared with neocortical neurons. Glucocorticoid receptors make hippocampal neurons uniquely vulnerable to stress-induced saturation. Its cells are perhaps a little more resilient in the face of traumatic or ischemic threats. Of course, our ignorance outweighs our knowledge: are all the changes found after concussion in the hippocampus necessarily bad A concussion with a duration of less than one second can be thought of as provoking an hours- to months-long fight for the survival of hippocampal pyramidal cells. In this corner are the physical and chemical peculiarities of these neurons that give them something of a glass jaw. Evidence also exists that there is a direct relationship between this regionally selective brain damage and cognitive impairment. Prior to sacrifice at 25 days, the rats were tested for memory in a radial arm maze. Learning and memory were "profoundly impaired" at one week and still impaired at two weeks, although these deficits typically vanished after three weeks. Such studies confirm that learning and memory deficits, almost universally described by human survivors of concussion, are objectively verifiable in animal models. One animal model of depression is forced swimming, also known as the Porsolt test [227]: a rodent is confined to a narrow tube filled with water 6 cm deep. Healthy mice will keep swimming for several minutes, perhaps hoping to find an exit. When mice with no motor deficits give up trying to swim prematurely, it is interpreted as a "loss of hope," or learned helplessness, 181 182 Part I: What is a Concussion Just as we see in the neurology clinic, sadness may be the main post-concussive problem. Injured mice could not be distinguished from healthy mice on the basis of any neurological deficit. A broader range of animal protocols investigates postconcussive anxiety, driven by the need to better understand the co-morbidity of concussion and post-traumatic stress disorder in humans. In partial conclusion, concussive force has a predilection for harming the very cells and circuits that support working memory, consolidation of declarative, episodic, and semantic memory, and emotional regulation. That awful event offers a salient analogy to the grim mechanics of human concussion: a very small but critically placed structural injury can trigger functional catastrophe. The reader might legitimately hope that we know which of these three occurs with what frequency after what severity of injury. If you or your rat survive a concussion, will your brain cells all survive, or will some die However, a subtlety warrants attention: there is a difference between dying and dead. Early in every biological career, one is taught to look through his or her microscope, detect classic cell changes, and declare that cell a goner. In both brain regions, many neurons were regarded as lost because they stained dark with Nissl. These findings force us to remember that what we call "dead" is a function of technique. Our state-of-the-art neurometabolic/inflammatoryimmunomodulatory/vascular/neurodegenerative melee concept predicts that, with sufficient membrane damage, excessive calcium entry, and mitochondrial energy crisis, neurons will undergo apoptosis. It is, to be sure, a ghastly threat to neuronal survival due to the triggering of gene-mediated suicide pathways. Degenerating neurons and their processes are sensitive to silver staining (one variety of which remains the old Golgi method). Fluoro-Jade B staining is probably even more sensitive, with a higher signal-to-noise ratio. One is the presence of activated caspase 3, a key enzymatic marker of neuronal suicidal. There is a distinctly ghost-like microscopic appearance to dead neurons that have yet to be dissolved completely. More to the point for quantifying neuronal death, one can count every neuron in a carefully selected region, then compare the average number of cells found in control (non-injured) animals to those found in concussed animals. Momentarily setting aside the rugged individual cells that perhaps defeat the apoptotic hordes, many cells that experience apoptosis in progress will be lost forever. Structural changes were apparent in the hippocampus, and axonal degeneration was observed in the striatum, corpus callosum, and cortex, even a year later. Moreover (as briefly noted before), these deleterious effects may be not only persistent but also progressive. Since this point was once hotly contested, it is again worth noting that different outcomes in different laboratories may simply and innocently be a matter of different techniques. Rather than doubting the moral compass of investigators who have come to opposite conclusions, one must fairly acknowledge that: (1) species vary; (2) strains vary; (3) individuals vary; (4) head-hitting methods vary; (5) assays searching for dead cells vary in sensitivity and specificity; and (6) (a giant technical hurdle), although we could count every person before and after plague, we never count every neuron before and after concussion. Each laboratory adopts its favorite method of figuring out whether cells died or not. Three were both anesthetized and struck a single blow on the head with what the authors called "a moderate, a moderately severe, and a severe concussion" (p. The number of animals was so small and the description of severity so ambiguous that the "neuronal loss" seen after concussion might have been due to sampling errors. Second, the findings were part of a series of studies using the same technique, so the results can be compared across a large subject pool. One was that, even in quite mild blows, there is both multifocal and diffuse damage in which some cells and regions are more vulnerable than others.